Reflections (Spring 2014)

  

 Taking on the blog-job of "Embodying a Multilingual Perspective"

     When I take a moment to reflect on all that I have personally learned, I must say that this semester has been, by far the most challenging, yet the most rewarding task that I have had since returning to school in 2010. Life for me had been mostly about finishing my coursework with whatever it would take, but I have been challenged to think creatively and to apply what I have learned in a manner that goes beyond what I originally thought I could do. Thus, the blog-job of "Embodying a Multilingual Perspective," was conceived.

     I love languages ... I adore language-learning ... I am enthusiastically looking forward to language-teaching in grades K-12.  In the months (and years) to come, I hope that time will allow me to increase in knowledge and experience that will develop into applicable wisdom that I may become the dynamic instructor I aspire to be.  In the future, I will post on a monthly basis and hope to be able to embed videos, music, and other features that will enhance the blog experience.

Please share whatever you feel may be beneficial to other language educators.  Thank you in advance!


Image retrieved from http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/2009/07/blog-for-teacher.html

Digital Literacy (05/05/14)

Technology and Language Teaching

If there is one place to find acronyms, technology would be that place.  There are non-computer based and computer based technology that are beneficial in the language-learning environment.  By now you might know that a CD is a compact disc, and a DVD is a digital video disc or digital versatile disc.  Believe it or not, some of us still use audio- and videotapes, along with stand-alone overhead projectors.  Thanks to the evolution of technology and the constant development of new applications and devices, many of the things we have become comfortable in using are now, or soon will be obsolete.

With this in mind, Brown (2007) gives us some information about the practical applications of CALL - Computer-Assisted Language Learning.  CMC, or computer-mediated communication has become more widely accepted as an alternative phrase to CALL.  Technology-mediated language learning (TMLL) attempts to capture the essence of efforts to integrate technology into pedagogical theories, allowing for it to go beyond computer science.

In the classroom,  there are multiple uses of CALL:

* Collaborative projects

* Peer-editing of compositions

* E-mail

* Blogs

* Web-based discussion boards

* Web page design

* Videoconferencing

* Reinforced class materials

* Podcasting

* Games and Simulations

* Speech recognition software

* Word search - context and collocations

* Multimedia presentations

I have had the awesome opportunity to experience new advances in language technology. Last year, I conducted an interview with a Taiwanese English teacher and continue to use technology to maintain active communication.  At one point in life (as recent as last year, sadly), I could have been considered a Luddite (one who dislikes technology to the point of attempting to destroy it).  However, I have given in to the fact that new advances in communication and learning technology will make the task of language teaching an exciting and adventurous task.

Which of the above pictured tools have you been able to use in your language teaching?  Please share in the comments below.  Are there any that you did not see that you would be willing to share?  Thank you in advance!

Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language 

             pedagogy (3^rd edition). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Image retrieved from http://blogs.ihes.com/tech-elt/?p=1384 

Assessments - How to evaluate langauge skills (05/07/14)

Assessments help educators gauge their students prior to, during, and post learning concepts. Some accepted and not so revered standardized test acronyms are below.  Which one(s) are you familiar with?  I have heard of TOEFL, and believe I heard of CALP in the past, but was introduced to TOEIC and IELTS, this year.

TOEFL® -Test of English as a foreign language.

TOEIC®- Test of English for International Communication

IELTS™ - International English Language Testing System

CALP - Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

Assessment is a continuous process that goes beyond simply testing students. A good teacher never ceases to evaluate students, whether those assessments are incidental (informal) or intentional (formal).  In the language classroom, the principles of assessment can serve as guidelines for the design of measuring tools that appraise the efficacy of an existing procedure.  These principles are:

• Practicality - a practical test is within the means of financial limitations, time constraints, ease of administration, and scoring and interpretation;
• Reliability- a reliable test is consistent and dependable;
• Validity - test validity is the degree to which it actually measures what it is intended to measure.
• content validity - the test actually samples the subject matter about which conclusions are to be drawn;
• face validity- convincing the learner that the test is indeed testing what it claims to test;
• construct validity- based on theoretical constructs (proficiency, communicative competence, self-esteem, etc.);
•  Authenticity - an authentic test has characteristics that correspond with the given language test task and the features of a target language task;
• Washback - feedback about student competence that is established by performance, but  based on useful diagnoses of strengths and weaknesses

There are numerous types of tests, but Brown (2007) highlights five types that can be found in the language curricula: Proficiency, Diagnostic, Placement, Achievement, and Aptitude.   Within each of the five categories (types) exists a variety of techniques and procedures that range from open-ended to structured response options and written to oral performance modes. Also mentioned are those that range from multiple-choice to fill-in-the-blank item design formats and objective to subjective scoring procedures.

In classroom-based assessments there are practical steps to test construction.  Brown suggests the following:

1. Test toward clear, unambiguous objectives.
2. Design test specifications based on your objectives.
3. Draft the test.
4. Make revisions to the test.
5. Final-edit, word-process, and print the test.
6. Utilize feedback after administering the test.
7. Provide ample washback.

What really piqued my interest was the section devoted to alternatives in assessment.  These alternatives emphasize the responsibility to apply all assessment principles to such options, and do not to treat them as strange deviations from normal assessment practices. This blog actually began as a creative alternative assessment and not because I could not do the original assignment, but because I desired to take the opportunity offered to do something creatively different. I am so grateful for this option to demonstrate that I have been actively engaged in my own learning process.  Additionally, I hope to maintain this blog as an educational professional for the benefit of pre-service and veteran teachers. 

Alternative Assessments, though, can be in several forms.  Those that are most common are:
Portfolios 
A purposeful collection of students' work that demonstrates efforts, progress, & achievements in given areas;

Journals 
Language learning-logs, responses to readings, and reflections on attitudes and feelings about oneself;

Conferences
Ungraded student-teacher meetings that produce dialogues to encourage student self-reflection;

Observations
Assessment done frequently and discreetly so that the naturalness of linguistic performance is maximized;

Self- and Peer-Assessments
Encourage autonomy and increased motivation because of self-involvement in the learning process;

Some other alternatives not listed above are works of fine art, websites or blogs, videos and video blogs, songs, poetry, and short story creation.  The list of alternatives could be endless, but the concern would be whether or not the alternatives will maximize practicality and reliability in the procedures, while focusing on the students' actual language performance.

I love the English language and believe that there are so many ways for students to experience success while learning it.  Assessments are an important part of helping students know where they are and determine what they may need in order to progress and reach their language goals.  Let's make sure we are fair when we consider what we teach and what we want students to learn.

Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language 

             pedagogy (3^rd edition). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education

Image retrieved from http://www.behaviorbabe.com/assessments.htm

Teaching English Grammar and Vocabulary in ESOL (04/14/14)

Form-Focused Instruction within a communicative language framework can be very beneficial for L2 learners.  Ranging from explicit treatment of rules to noticing or consciousness-raising techniques, structured input for learners depends on the students, their purposes for learning the language and the context.

Brown (2007) explores "Grammar ... to teach or not to teach?" That is the question. Several variables affect the role of grammar in language teaching:

• Age
• Proficiency Level
• Educational Background
• Language Skills
• Style (learner's grammatical accuracy)
• Needs and Goals

The next question would be: "Exactly how should grammar be presented?"

Brown shares that an inductive approach is more appropriate for grammar instruction because it keeps with natural language acquisition, conforms more easily to interlanguage development, allows students to get a communicative feel and builds more intrinsic motivation, allowing students to discover rules rather than being told what they are.  Harmer (2007) might agree with Brown and add a little playtime in there, adapting games from TV and radio shows that encourage students to use target structures.

Language cannot be taught without some grammatical structures, and those cannot be discovered without vocabulary.  Once vocabulary is introduced, Harmer (2007) suggests that students practice the vocabulary and engage in games that reinforce the vocabulary learned.  The discussion about dictionaries as the greatest single resource for L2 learners, also revealed that  they are the least widely-used. Dictionaries contain information about vocabulary words, their uses, and how they operate.

In classical language instruction (from way back in the day), grammar and vocabulary were explicitly taught and drilled into students' heads.  When asked today what they may remember, many of them can only recall a few things.  (I personally polled people ages 50-70+). Students who have experienced grammar and vocabulary in interactive ways seem to have greater recall and express better sentiments to their language-learning experiences.  They are also considerably younger and have access to resources other than books.

Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language 

             pedagogy (3^rd edition). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching. Harlow, England: Pearson
            Longman.

Image retrieved from http://www.aasd.k12.wi.us

Lesson Planning Techniques and Materials (03/24/14)

Lesson planning can appear to be one of the most daunting tasks an educator must face.  There are some plans that  are highly detailed and include scripts containing anticipated student interactions.  There are those that may appear to be bare bones, especially to new teachers, but the plans are power-packed and infused with enough academic ammunition to induce meaningful learning experiences.

Brown (2007) provides the format of a lesson plan in Chapter 10 of his book, Teaching by Principles, An Interactive Approach to Language Teaching. I have adapted his elements for this page.

1. Long- and short-term Goals -having the end in mind for the overall course
2. Objectives - Clearly stated & measurable milestones, stating what should be gained from the lesson.
3. Materials and equipment - From handouts to scissors and tape recorders, this list is invaluable.
4. Procedures- activities and the proportions of time devoted to those activities and closure
5. Assessment - a way to measure the success of student learning (w/the ability to make adjustments)
6. Extra-class work - (as opposed to homework) encourages learning beyond the class hour.

I have planned a few lessons and am excited to be sharing a few of them on this platform over time.  Although I will not be including any of my own in this post, I am suggesting a few sites you may use when looking for lesson plans that have already been used by teaching professionals.

Scholastic

Discovery Education

Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language 

             pedagogy (3^rd edition). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Image retrieved from http://www.chiasuanchong.com

Reading, Writing, Speaking, and Listening ... Oh My! (04/09/14)

Ideally, integrating the four skills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening encourages a whole language approach, which focuses on two or more interrelated skills.  Some may argue, according to Brown (2007), that integration diminishes the importance of the rules for listening, speaking, reading and writing that are unique to each individual skill.  Chapter 17 highlights the four skills and shares insight into teaching models of skills integration.

• Content-Based Instruction allows learners to acquire knowledge and skills beyond bits and pieces of language taught in a regular language classroom.

• Task-Based Language Teaching is a well-integrated approach to instruction in which users undertake practical real-world tasks to experience the functional purpose for language learning.

• Theme-Based Instruction is also considered "topic-based" teaching and can serve the multiple interests of students, offering a focus on content while adhering to  the curriculum standards.

•  Experiential Learning includes activities that involve both cerebral hemispheres, contextualize the language, integrate skills, and point toward authentic purposes for language outside of the classroom.

• The Series Method (based on the episode hypothesis) presents language in a format that is structured episodically (an easy to follow storyline) and is easier to reproduce, understand, and recall.

Other chapters are committed specifically to each of the skills.   Chapter 20 on teaching reading explores strategies for reading comprehension.  The use of prereading, during-reading and after-reading activities are encouraged as they cause students to be interactive with reading passages.

Chapter 21 is devoted to teaching writing and highlights the "process versus product" for this skill.  A few benefits to process approaches are: allowing students to discover their own voice, offering learners an opportunity to engage in meaningful writing; and providing a sense of audience and authentic tasks. Process is not the end; it is the means to the end (product).

Chapter19, which covers teaching Speaking, encourages a focus on both fluency and accuracy, which do not include activities like mindless, repetitious drills.

Chapter 18 is devoted to teaching listening, and sheds light on what makes listening difficult.  I would have to say that the rate of delivery may be the number one culprit. Nearly every language learner initially believes that native speakers talk too fast.

These brief snippets are nothing compared to the chapters themselves, which can be found in Teaching by Principles, An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, by H. Douglas Brown.

Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language

     pedagogy (3rd edition). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Image retrieved from http://www.lonelyreload.com (an expired domain name).

Numbers and How They Help Us (05/13/2014)

As a student in the EDCI 434 course, I have been challenged to prepare a lesson plan that incorporates what I know about teaching English to speakers of other languages. Part of my teaching philosophy shares the great connection I have found that lies between linking language instruction with core subjects.  I am sharing the lesson plan I originally created for use in the Spanish classroom but have adapted, as a challenge acceptance, for ESL with an extension that the original plan lacked.  I have also included a lesson plan that I believe is one of my favorites because of the Social Studies, Science and Literature components it has.

I have found that the Pearson Lesson Plan Template I used for the final EDCI 434 plan doesn't allow for changes that I would have liked to make, but I plan on creating a template that can be adapted for your personal use in the near future.  This plan can only be viewed online and possibly printed.  I do not believe you will be able to  download it or make changes to it.  Since I am not the owner of the template, do know that I have used it with permission.

The lesson topic is "Numbers and how they help us." I strongly believe that the utilitarian purpose for language learning makes it meaningful for students.  Otherwise, why learn another language?  If I cannot do anything with it but say my name, ask you yours and go on my merry way, what would be the use?  Please take a moment to review my final lesson plan.  If you have any suggestions, feel free to leave them below or send me a message.  I would love to hear from you!

One of my favorite lesson plans was written just before the New Year.  I enjoyed preparing for it and am looking forward to using it, reflecting upon and revising it, so that I can improve its future use in my classroom.  Enjoy!

Image retrieved from http://www.vietnamtefl.com/index.php

More Acronyms (03/03/14)

You have heard of TMI (Too Much Information) and WTMI (Way too much information), but we are now dealing with tasks and making them work in the language-learning environment - TBI, TBLT, and CBI.

In Chapter 3 of  Tasks and Communicating in Language Classrooms, James F. Lee shares insight on developing task-based activities for task-based instruction (TBI).  There are questions that need to be formulated in order to provoke discussion, which would lead to task-based activity creation.

1. Identify a desired informational outcome.
2. Break down the topic into subtopics.
3. Create and sequence concrete tasks for learners to do, for example, create lists, fill in charts, make tables, etc..
4. Build in linguistic support, either lexical or grammatical or both.

Each area could generate several questions that would address a language outcome.  Lee gave examples of activities, like "What Did You Do Last Week?" and "The Best Shows on TV." These types of tasks appear to encourage reading, writing, speaking, and listening.  Lee maintains that task-based activities must structure and sequence learner interaction with a focus on meaning exchange.

Task-based Language Teaching, according to Richards & Rodgers (2001), refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and language instruction in teaching.  The key areas of concern identified in chapter 8 are:

• analysis of real-world task-use situations

• the translation of these into teaching task descriptions

• the detailed design of instructional tasks

• the sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training

I believe the utilitarian purpose for learning a language, which TBI may encourage, helps students see a higher purpose for learning, outside of the classroom walls and report cards.  I am almost sure that is the reason I speak more than one langauge today.  I KNOW there is applicable use of them in real-world situations.  

Are you looking for a way to use a language you thought had no other purpose than to add points to your H.S. GPA?  Try attending a Meetup.  I have had the great benefit of Silent Suppers (American Sign Language)  and Meetups for Spanish music and language lovers.  Thinking of joining a group?  Try Meetup.  I strongly promote getting out, refreshing, learning and using your other language.

Lee, J. F. (2000). Tasks and communicating in language classrooms. Boston: McGraw-

     Hill.

Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. 

     Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Image retrieved from http://www.nclrc.org

Historical Overview of Language Instruction Methods (02/24/14)

Although I will not go into great detail here.  I would like to share a brief overview of language instruction methods.  Diane Larsen-Freeman, author of Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, is thorough in sharing a historical overview of teaching methods. 

• Grammar-Translation Method is based on a classical method of teaching Greek and Latin, emphasizing vocabulary and grammar, using written text translations.

• Direct Method uses the target language (TL) and emphasizes oral tasks to promote thinking and listening in the TL.

• Audio-Lingual Method encourages students to communicate and overlearn language.  Students act as parrots and often participate in call and response activities.

• Silent Way Method makes use of prior knowledge and focuses on pronunciation.

• Desuggestopedia promotes use of the full brain while employing the use of art and music.

• Community Language Learning Method promotes conversation in the native language and teaching chunks in the TL to make transcripts.

• Total Physical Response employs the use of vocabulary and imperatives to provoke appropriate responses.

• Communicative Language Teaching offers authentic language for real-world experience.  This method promotes meaningful learning for students. (Larsen-Freeman, 2000).

For further reading you can borrow or purchase a copy of the third edition of Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, which Larsen-Freeman co-authored with Marti Anderson in 2011. Which method did you experience when learning your L2 and which do you employ in your classroom?  Please leave comments below.

Works Cited

Larsen-Freeman D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford
     University Press.
Image retrieved from http://allthingslearning.wordpress.com/2011/02/17/why-should-we-
     bother-to-learn-a-foreign-language/

SLA, what do you say? (02/19/14)

There are studies that promote the use of cooperative learning strategies in the language classroom. Second language acquisition (SLA) has been a topic of discussion amongst language professionals.  The questions surrounding how one acquires a language in addition to his/her native language cannot be fully answered with surety.  Several schools of thought exist.

Within the Natural Approach to SLA, Stephen Krashen suggests that a second language (L2) can be acquired as one learns the native/home language.  Five hypotheses were proposed:

• Acquisition Learning hypothesis - the unconscious process that follows patterns of children’s L1 acquisition. There is a distinct difference between learning and acquiring a language.  Anything learned is conscious, while acquisition occurs subconsciously. Natural interaction with the language via meaningful connections is encouraged.

• Monitor model hypothesis - conscious monitoring of language in which monitor produces utterance and makes changes as necessary.

• Natural order hypothesis - rules of a language are acquired in a predictable order that is independent of the order in which rules are taught in language classes. However, there are individual factors that would yield varied results.

• Comprehensible input hypothesis - the L2 input is just beyond the learner's L2 competence in terms of syntactic complexity.  If input is understood and it is sufficient, the necessary grammar is automatically provided and acquired.

• Affective filter hypothesis - the affective state of a student (how comfortable s/he may feel) determines how receptive to comprehensible input that learner will be.  These states include feelings of low self-esteem, boredom, and doubt.

Merryl Swain suggests that Comprehensible Output is what encourages SLA.  There are functions outside of "practice" for learner output (language production), which are:

• a noticing function that raises consciousness

• the hypothesis-testing function

• the metalinguistic function, which encourages reflection and awareness of the L2

Michael Long shares his view using an Interaction Hypothesis which proposes that language proficiency is promoted by face-to-face interaction and communication.  This seems to concur with the idea of communicative competence (Hymes & Widdowson), which is based on the interdependence of language. On the other hand, concerning linguistic competence (Chomsky), areas of grammar, discourse, sociolinguistic and pragmatic functions are viewed separately.

Image retrieved from http://www.everydaylanguagelearner.com/2012/01/30/language-

     learning-tip-use-music-learn-foreign-language/

Multiple Intelligences (02/12/14)

     Has anyone ever asked you, "What is your IQ?"  I know I've been asked once or twice, but without testing I believe I would be where almost everyone else is ... in the NORMAL range.

  Howard Gardner introduced Multiple Intelligences (MI) in an effort to encourage a closer look at the Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ) versus the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) in viewing student intelligence.  This shift took place in the early 1990s in response to a growing need to determine how the IQ determines overall success (in academia, life, leadership, etc.).  Studies have shown that closer observation of multiple intelligences is a better determining factor to overall success.

The Birmingham Grid for Learning is a site that offers other FREE resources for teachers and students.  You can also find out where your smarts lie ... Would you like to know your EQ? Take a moment, especially if you do not already know, to take the MI self test. 

After I took the test, I see that I am more Musically intelligent, with areas of Logical and Linguistic intelligence in close second. From that point, the areas for me, in descending order are:

Visual/Spatial, Naturalistic, Interpersonal, Naturalistic, Intrapersonal and Kinesthetic.  I personally believe that I know myself better than getting involved with the affairs of others, but I would agree with the musical, logical and linguistic intelligences.

So, now I will ask ... "What is your EQ?" Be sure to share in the comment section.

Witness the acknowledgment of schools:  MI in Smartville.


Birmingham Grid for Learning MI self test retrieved from http://www.bgfl.org/bgfl/
         custom/resources_ftp/client_ftp/ks3/ict/multiple_int/index.htm

Image retrieved from http://www.connectionsacademy.com

Learning Styles (02/10/14)

      Learning styles are a driving force that can determine how productive a classroom may be. Acknowledging the diversity of these preferences in your classroom may increase success.  Oxford & Lavine (1993) share that a mismatch between teaching and student styles may create a war within the learning environment, which happens to be among the most frequent problems existing.  How, then, should a teacher address this concern?

     Strategy-based instruction (SBI) appears to tackle several issues at once.  It takes learning styles and preferences into account and allows students to pull upon their strengths.  Using checklists and other assessment tools, teachers can encourage good language-learning behaviors.  According to Brown's "10 Commandments" for good language learning, found on p. 268 (2007), instructors and students have reminders that encourage the process.  For teachers, these would include lowering inhibitions and processing error feedback.  Students would then benefit from setting goals and making their mistakes work for them, in addition to their other suggestions.

     We cannot discuss SBI without understanding that students need to be strategically invested in their language-learning process.  This is perhaps the most powerful principle of learning that can merge into intrinsic motivation and autonomy. (Brown, 2007). 

     Have you adopted  or are you considering adopting SBI in your language classroom?  If so, how has it been beneficial?  Please feel free to share your suggestions.

Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language 

             pedagogy (3^rd edition). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Oxford, R. L., & Lavine, R. Z. (March 08, 1993). Teacher-Student Style Wars in the 

             Language Classroom: Research Insights and Suggestions. Adfl Bulletin, 23, 

             2, 38-45. 

Image of Learning Styles retrieved from http://www. ccsf.edu

Classroom Interactions (02/05/14)

The interactive teacher, one who is fully aware of the group dynamics of his/her classroom, can take on several roles. Although they can play many roles in the course of teaching, Brown listed some metaphors to describe a spectrum of possibilities for those roles.  Based on chapter 13 of his text, Teaching by Principles, An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, teachers can serve as any or a combination of the following:

Controller -
This educator can often predict student responses and is always in charge of every moment in the
classroom.

Director -
This teacher is like the  conductor of an orchestra or director of a drama. The ultimate motive must
always be to enable students to engage in the real life drama of improvisation.

Manager -
This instructor is one who plans lessons, modules, and courses.  The ultimate goal is to retain control of certain large objectives.

Facilitator -
The teacher helps students clear away roadblocks, find shortcuts, and negotiate rough terrain by capitalizing on the principle of intrinsic motivation.  S/he allows students to discover language through using it pragmatically, rather than telling them about language.

Resource -
This type of instructor has the least directive role.  S/he is available for advice and counsel when the students seek it.

Considering these different approaches to teaching in the language classroom, the question would then be: What type of teacher am I?  As educators, we often reflect on the success of our lesson plans in relation to the success of our students.  After you have taken a moment to ponder on what type of teacher you are, please feel free to share it here. Are there any activities that you may swear by that you could share with us? Thank you in advance for your contribution(s).


Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language 
            pedagogy (3^rd edition). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Image - A Tale of Two Classrooms, retrieved from http://venspired.com/?p=2762

Approaches to ESL/EFL (From 2/3/14)

I have discovered that there are numerous acronyms that I would like to share after having encountered the approaches to ESL and EFL instruction. Of course, there will be more to come ...

ESL -  English as a second language is taught in the US, the UK, India, or countries where English is the primary language of commerce or education.

EFL - English as a foreign language is taught in places like Taiwan, or Brazil, where English is NOT the major language.

Brown mentions several language learning and teaching principles in Teaching by Principles, An Integrative Approach to Language Pedagogy. The cognitive principles refer to mental and intellectual functions which include a subconscious fluency (automaticity), relevant associations (meaningful learning), and successful mastery of a foreign language (autonomy).  I am very fond of "intrinsic motivation," which is encouraged, sometimes, by the anticipation of rewards, which for most speakers would be the ability to speak a language without asking what words mean or having to carry a dictionary around.  I am personally grateful for the invaluable site I was introduced to last year - wordreference.com. There are at least 15 different language dictionaries, resources and forums available.  Would you believe that is even an app for that? And yes (because I know you are wondering if I have it); I don't leave home without it.

The socioaffective principles are based on a learner's feelings about him/herself, communicating with others in a community of learners, and the ties between language and one's culture, worldview, and way of life. (Brown, 2007). Linguistic principles then, would deal directly with language itself: the learner's native language, interlanguage (the quasi- systematic developmental process in progression to competence in the target language (TL)), and communicative competence. All working together to help educators formulate methodological options in their language classroom pedagogy.

Within chapters 1 and 4, Brown presents a typical English lesson and encourages readers (future or current language educators) to develop a broadly based theoretical approach that incorporates basic principles of learning and teaching language. We will explore chapters 13 and 14 next.

Work Cited

Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language 
             pedagogy (3^rd edition). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Wordreference.com. (2014). Internet Bilingual Dictionaries and tools. Retrieved from
            http://www.wordreference.com


Image retrieved from : http://www.oncallinternational.com/blog/before-you-travel-key-phrases-to-learn-in-the-local-language/